Managing Uncertainty exam study guide Essay

Overseeing Uncertainty test study manage Essay Overseeing Uncertainty test study control Essay Overseeing Uncertainty Exam Format 4 inquiries †pick 2 1 page for each answer The inquiries will cover: definitions, hypothesis, ideas No stunt questions Use models in answers Important parts: - Origins of Wealth 1 and 6 - Use rising of cash for definitions/models The Cynefin Framework Definitions Essential Patterns of Complexity Rise and Self-Organization Large scale frameworks that appear because of activities of many (apparently disconnected) specialists Model: Traffic in India/showcase cost Availability Everything is interconnected Significant in light of the fact that anything done by an operators could influence everything else in the framework Model: changes the temperature of one sea will in the end influence each of the 7. Robbery diminished because of modest work in china. Stuff wasn’t worth taking any longer Non-Linearity Impact isn't legitimately corresponding to the reason Model: Input Effects Negative input impacts balance the framework, implying that there is no change. Positive criticism impacts intensify the change, think snowball impact. (Viral promoting) Model: Negative: snowball moving down a cold slope. Positive: Media’s impact on Lehman Turmoil Vast components in the framework at the hour of its creation, which could prompt enormous changes in the last rising conditions Model: butterfly impact Tipping Point Where a framework changes from one condition (of being) to another. (The straw that crushed the camel’s spirit) Model: Downfall of Lehman Brothers Way Dependency Past activities make structures, which lead to the improvement of imperatives in the framework. History matters. There is consistently setting. You never start from zero. Model: re-trying or constructing another underground line - Human Cognition Immaculate Rationality: Spock Encircling Bias Setting the data is surrendered (can be utilized to impact coming about resolutions). Representativeness Making enormous determinations from exceptionally little/one-sided tests. (Doesn't have full data) Accessibility Bias Putting together ends with respect to effectively available data Trouble making a decision about hazard Miss-surveying Threats

The Life And Poetry Of William Buttler Yeats Essays - Abbey Theatre

The Life And Poetry Of William Buttler Yeats Essays - Abbey Theater The Life And Poetry Of William Buttler Yeats On June 13 1865 William Butler Yeats was conceived in Dublin Ireland. From the beginning Yeats had masterful impacts, because of the way that his dad Jack Butler Yeats was a prominent Irish painter. He had no conventional training until he was eleven, around then he began at the Godolphin Grammar School in Hammer*censored*h England and later he took a crack at Erasmus Smith High School in Dublin. All through his tutoring he was viewed as disillusioning understudy, his investigations were conflicting, he was inclined to fantasizing, and poor at sports. In 1884 Yeats discovered his way to the Metropolitan School for the Arts, here he met a writer by the name of George Russell. Yeats and Russell sheared similar dreams, dreams, and the eagerness for them. Russell and Yeats before long established the Dublin Hermetic Society to direct enchanted examinations. They advanced their thought that whatever extraordinary artists had confirmed in there best minutes was the closest we could go to a definitive religion and that their folklore and their spirits of wind and water were nevertheless strict truth. This started Yeatss enthusiasm for the investigation of the mysterious. After his involvement with the hermetic culture he joined the Rosicrucians, Madam H.P. Blavavtskys Theosophical Society, and MacGregors Mathers Order of the Dawn. Yeats counseled mystics much of the time and occupied with the custom of conjuring the Irish Gods. The mysterious research Yeats made was clear in his verse. The mysterious was a wellspring of pictures to use in his sonnets, and evedence of this is in the entirety of his works. In1885 Yeats met John OLeary an Irish Nationalist and Fenian pioneer. OLeary assumed a huge job on getting Yeatss his work previously distributed in The Dublin University Review and guiding Yeatss focus toward local Irish hotspots for motivation. The impact of OLeary made Yeats take up the Irish journalists cause. Britain was attempting to decimate all Irish writing trying to anglicize Ireland through a restriction on the Gaelic language. OLearys patriotism and restriction to savagery dazzled numerous individuals including Yeats. These perspectives helped shape political perspectives that Yeats would hold for an incredible remainder. In 1889Yeats met Maude Gonne, a lady he cherished pathetically for an amazing remainder. Yeats requested that Gonne wed him ordinarily yet she constantly turned him down. Gonne was an Irish loyalist and a motivation to Yeats. Yeats as often as possible went with here to political conventions despite the fact that he for the most part couldn't help contradicting her fanatic strategies. Their relationship experienced a ton including Gonnes brief marrige to John McBride. The vast majority of Yeatss verse is routed to her. Yeats connected her with Helen of Troy, whose eccentricity prompted the annihilation of a progress. In 1986 Yeats became companions with Lady Isabella Augusta Gregory, a patriot writer. Together Yeats and Lady Gregory served to establish the Abbey Theater. As the executive and playwright Yeats assisted with transforming it into a main showy organization of the world and a focal point of the Irish Renaissance. Close to the Turn of the century Yeats battled to forsake his old style of composing, as of now his composing turned out to be less enchanted and emblematic and it became more clear. Yeats in the end got hitched in 1917, at 52 years old. His better half was Georgie Hyde-Lees, while on their special night she found that she had mediumistic capacities. Through programmed composing she could speak with a visionary domain. In Yeatss later years he turned out to be increasingly engaged with legislative issues. From 1922 1928 he was a representative for the Irish Free State. In 1923 Yeats got the Nobel Prize for writing, and kicked the bucket on January 18 1939 in Roquebrune France. Yeats was covered in Sligo Ireland. A Drunken Mans Praise of Sobriety Come wash around my truly punk What's more, keep me moving still That I may remain a calm man Despite the fact that I drank my fill. Moderation is a gem That I do much venerate, Furthermore, along these lines continue moving Despite the fact that boozers untruth and wheeze. O mind your feet, O mind your feet Continue moving like a wave, Furthermore, under each artist A dead man in his grave. No ups no downs, my Pretty, A mermaid not a punk; A lush is a dead man And every dead man are flushed. This is an expressive sonnet, which Yeats

Professional Help in Writing Essay

Professional Help in Writing Essay Custom Writing Services Are Ready to Help You Home›Education Posts›Custom Writing Services Are Ready to Help You Education PostsProfessional Help in Writing EssayEven the straight-A students are familiar with the overwhelming feeling when studying just gets a bit too much. It often happens that you have a lot of work to do at once, and suddenly there are simply no enough hours in a day. That’s when different writing services come to rescue.There is no shame in using these services, and in many cases, this decision is completely justified. For example, you have an essay due on an obligatory college subject that has absolutely nothing to do with your major. Obviously, you dedicate more time to the things that are important for you, but at the same time, you don’t want to spoil your excellent reputation and grades. That’s when you use writing services.Another case: you haven’t been feeling well for some time, and eventually it starts affecting your academic performance. You want to keep up with other students, but simply can’t manage everything in a short period of time. That’s when you again may use writing services.How to Make the Right Choice?When you trust someone with your assignment, you, of course, have to be sure that this person can master it on the highest level. In most cases, people working in this sphere are competent and educated enough to provide you with the result that will be appreciated by any professor. Nevertheless, there is still a certain risk. Not only does your grade depend on it, but also each assignment is the next step towards your ultimate goal â€" a diploma and qualification. Hence, by investing in a skillful writer, you invest in your future.To find a good writer, don’t go for the first one you stumble upon. The ones that promote themselves exhaustively are not necessarily the best ones. Instead, make a research online, read the feedback and ask other people for some recommendations. Looking for the best writer, pa y attention to the following things:the qualifications that the writer possesses and whether they have sufficient knowledge in your sphere;the experience of the writer and the records of previous works;positive reputation among the customers.What are Your Expectations?Different people seek professional help for different reasons. Before applying for that, you need to understand clearly what result you are expecting. Determine what kind of an essay your professor is looking for because there are many types of them. Make sure you provide your writer with all the requirements such as the length of the paper, the necessary style, the layout and so on. In case you don’t do it, you can’t blame your writer for not creating a perfect piece of writing.Using the help of writing services to tackle challenging assignments is a common practice today. It never diminishes your own achievements as a student as long as you don’t abuse such services and don’t use them for every single paper.

Dynamic Equilibrium Definition (Chemistry)

A dynamic equilibrium is a chemical equilibrium between a forward reaction and the reverse reaction where the rate of the reactions are equal. At this point, the ratio between reactants and products remains unchanged over time. For elementary reaction, the equilibrium constant may be expressed in terms of the rate constant. For the reaction: A â‡Å' B The equilibrium constant K is: K [B]eq / [A]eq Source Atkins, P.W.; de Paula, J. (2006). Physical Chemistry (8th. ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870072-5.

Behavioral Economics Essay - 598 Words

Introduction Behavioral economics studies cognitive, emotional and social factors effects on economic decisions made by an individuals and consequences returns, resource allocation and market prices. It assumes that human beings are rational in the decisions they make. Behavioral economics do not involve assumption. The difference comes in from the notion that the human behavior observation contradicts behavior of people to be perfectly rational. Therefore, the two starts from different points. Both behavioural economics and economics try to proscribe and describe patterns of human spending. The implication is that it does not only try to describe human behavior but tries to dictate human behavior. Behavioral Economics The authors draw†¦show more content†¦From this perspective, psychology influenced an individual’s decision making. Neoclassical economists rejected the psychological perspective and adopted the behavioural perspective. The neoclassical economist stated that the behavior of one dictates ones rationality in the making of decisions which is proscriptive. With classical economists, empirical evidence implies humans are static no matter how much they try to change their behavior. Presently, the classical and neo classical economist have combined to achieve modern economics. It comprises of both psychological and behavioral activities in making of decisions. A classical economic theory market is not all about demandand supply of sellers and buyers. A seller benefits more by giving a buyer more than he needs or selling at higher prices. According to Pareto efficiency that states that the distribution in the markets creates efficiency and both buyer and seller trades off well. This model does not benefit both parties;therefore, a more realistic model was adopted. Hyper rational economist is one who uses ancient ideas to be a prey and a predator at the same time. This mode tries to balance the welfare of both parties involved in the market. Both classical and neo classical shows the behavior of an individual taking into account the social, cognitive and resource allocation and the consequences on demand andShow MoreRelatedCognitive Economics : Behavioral Economic s1115 Words   |  5 PagesBehavioral economics has also consulted inter-temporal choice. Inter-temporal choice describes to how humans decide about what and how much to do at different times when decide at a time effect the facilities available at another time. Choice under risk or ambiguity relates the dual-system theory. Research suggests that people’s decisions can be affected by the â€Å"type and amount of information† they find. A behavioral equilibrium depends on people take from frequently acts their equilibrium strategiesRead MoreBehavioral Economics Deck1345 Words   |  6 PagesOctober 27TH, 2010 SWITCHING BARRIERS RESEARCH 1 UNDERSTANDING CONSUMER COMPLACENCY TO SWITCHING TO THE BEST OFFER According to behavioral economists, consumers don’t always behave rationally, like a market (in theory) does, and they don’t make decisions based solely on facts or logic such as price or quality. Other psychological factors have an impact on decisions. This explains why very often, consumers become complacent when faced with the best value proposition. FEAR OF OVERPAYMENTRead More Overview of Behavioral Economics Essay2366 Words   |  10 PagesBehavioural economics is the study of the effects that psychology has on the decision making of the economy. This tends to be the way that people think and feel when they are spending money on a certain good or service. The great economist Adam Smith was the first follower of this idea through his book â€Å"The theory of moral sentiments† which dates back to 1759. However, it took over 100 years to get a more clarified meaning of how big of a role the psychology of a buyer plays in economics. In behaviouralRead MoreA Re search Study On Behavioral Economics1956 Words   |  8 PagesThe specific area of interest I focused on for this assignment is Behavioural Economics. Behavioural Economics (BE) is a scientific discipline that involves the study of a variety of effects on the economic decisions made both by institutions and individuals (Lunn, 2014). This is a dynamic and exciting field and sub-discipline within the field of economics that has gained much popularity in recent years. Behavioural economists have the opportunity to make important contributions in a variety of fieldsRead MoreEconomics : A Behavioral Economics2663 Words   |  11 Pages Introduction Economic decision processing which relates with the study of economics is commonly refereed as a behavioral economics. Behavioral economics is a very fast growing concept which tells us how market decisions and the mechanism are made through public choice. People’s choice and attitude over the time are the broad idea of behavioral economics. Some social program are designed in ways that needs clients to make decisions and follow a series of steps in order to benefit- from choosing whichRead MoreA Behavioral Economics Analysis Of The Exploitation Of Consumer s Time Inconsistency Preferences By Modern Credit Card Companies1824 Words   |  8 Pages A Behavioral Economics Analysis of the Exploitation of Consumer’s Time Inconsistency Preferences by Modern Credit Card Companies Jayshawn Anderson April 28, 2016 CWRU Behavioral economics, as defined by the National Bureau of Economic Research, is the â€Å"combination of psychology and economics that investigates what happens in markets in which some of the agents display human limitations and complications.† Many doubted the assumptions in place under neo-classical economics, so new ones were establishedRead MoreRational Fools : A Critique Of The Behavioral Foundations Of Economic Theory1260 Words   |  6 PagesCritique of the Behavioral Foundations of Economic Theory written by economist, Amartya Sen, takes a look at behavioral self-interest and its relation to behavioral economics. At the time that this paper was written, behavioral economics was becoming a popular area to explore and economists were trying to figure out how they could apply their research to encourage human flourishing. Sen begins this paper by critiquing the work of Edgeworth, who claimed that the 1st principle of economics was that everyRead MoreEssay on Behavior al Economics1279 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Described as the economic field that deals with the analysis of the effect that the process of decision making impacts on the decisions reached, behavioral economics is a field that has elicited lots of interest from various scholars (Altman, 24). The economists consider this branch of economics as cognitive science due to the fact that it deals with analysis of the process of decision making. Eric Wanner one of the earlier founders of the discipline describes this economic field as a componentRead MoreChapter 8 : Behavioral Economics1490 Words   |  6 PagesThe most fascinating chapter for me was Chapter 8, Behavioral Economics, more specifically the two-part process of our brains, System 1 and System 2, the most common biases, and the two systems interaction with each other. I’ve always been fascinated by human behavior and thought; why we do the things we do, what causes our actions, and why we constantly indulge in self-destructing habits and tendencies even though we have a clear understanding of the adverse effects of those choices. LearningRead MoreBehavioral Economics Of A Pensioners Choice1934 Words   |  8 Pages Behavioural Economics Surrounding a Pensioners Choice BSc. Mathematics and Actuarial Sciences University of Leicester Submitted by: Usman Raza Khan (119047679) Supervisor: Nick Foster Contents: Introduction What is Financial Myopia and Hyperbolic Discounting? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 What is Inertia? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Governments Efforts †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Controversy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 Introduction: Due to better health

Poverty in Canada or USA Free Essays

During the period between 1929 and 1953, the United States occupational pay ratios and earning inequality is declined, mainly across World War II (Ober 1948, Phelps Brown 1977, Williamson and Lindert 1980, Goldin and Margo 1922b). The evidence showed that the condition of income inequality was occurrence in that period. Moreover, the problem of income inequality is declined. We will write a custom essay sample on Poverty in Canada or USA or any similar topic only for you Order Now But, the problem of income inequality is existed. The government cannot spread the income distibution evenly. Many reasons obstructed the income distribution evenly. In my discussion, I concentrate to explain five reasons to influence the income distribution in the United States in the 20th century. Changing in social norms is related to the income distributions. Many people think that women represented a cheaper alternative for employers. Their jobs were viewed as temporary to be abandoned in favor of marriage and a home. High turnover combined with a large pool of replacements in any occupation will tend to depress wages, but it also means there is no incentive to provide career opportunities or invest much effort to train persons for more responsibility. Consequently, women tended to fill the more specialized and lower-paying work, while men moved into the new office manager roles. The fact is that clerical, service, and sales work does not yield significant financial returns to people with more formal education or longer work experience (Bibb Form, 1977). In large part, this is because most of these are low ceiling careers, lacking in meaningful promotion opportunities for higher paying positions. The jobs have been filled advantageous position by one sex or the other. The point is strongly influencing the income distributions. The point of the unionization is related to the income distributions. Unions have improved wages and benefits, increased job security, and protected workers from discriminatory managerial decisions. Male workers are more likely to be members of trade unions, thus enjoying the advantages of collective bargaining for wages and earning more than women (Flaherty Caniglia, 1992). Overall, women are about half as likely to be union members as men. Rinehart wrote, ? Â § This accommodation to capitalist power was formalized in what is known as the post ? V World War II compromise forged in the midst of the intense class struggles of the 1940s. This settlement between labor, big capital, and the state featured the establishment of a new industrial relations system and stipulated a set of trade ? V off. Unions were legally recognized and accorded organizational security.? (P. 184) Changing in the education level of the population is related to the income distribution. In the U. S, the financial return to a university or college degree also declined during the 1970s. One explanation of this phenomenon was the substantial increase the proportion of the population going to university, particularly the entry into the labor force of the ? Baby-Boom? generation during the 1970s (Welch 1979). Freeman (1976, 1980) argued that the demand for educated workers also declined, so that not all of the change in relative earnings could be attributed to temporary developments on the supply side. Dooley (1986) concluded that the entry of the large baby? Vboom cohort during this period did lower earnings growth for this group, but that this demographic effect could not account for the observed harrowing of earnings differentials by level of education. Dooley? s results thus suggest that demand ? V side forces may also have played a role. Changing in the age structure of the population is related to the income distribution. The shapes of the earning streams reflect the main key factors which is earnings increase with age but at a decreasing rate. This concave shape reflects the fact that individuals generally continue to make human capital investments in the form of on-the-job training and work experience once they have entered the labor force. This job experience adds more to their productivity and earning s early in their careers due to diminishing returns to experience. However, to the extent that education increases productivity, individuals with the same amount of work experience but more education will earn more, perhaps substantially more. Migration is related to the income distribution. Economic theory predicts that the forces of competition would serve to reduce pure regional wage differentials so that they reflect compensating differences, short-run adjustments, or noncompetitive factors. Those forces of competition were the movement of capital from high- to low-wage areas, and the movement of labor from low- to high-wage areas. Empirical evidence tends to verify the implications of migration as a human capital decision. In a recent study, Osberg, Gordon, and Lin (1994) explore the determinants of interregional and interindustry mobility of individuals in the Maritimes. Using the 1986-87 LMAS, they find that younger individuals and those with higher expected wage gains are more likely to migrate. As well, the process of migration tends to reduce the regional disparities that induce the migration decision. In conclusion, the five reasons are influence the income distribution in the United States in the 20th century. The social norms show that the income inequality is happened between men and women. The unionization shows that the unions have a power to improve the wages and benefits for their members. In this situation, the income inequality is happened between union? s members and non-unions members. Although the demand for education workers was declined, education people still earn more than the uneducated people do because they have an expertise knowledge and experience. Migration is benefits for the young individuals. They can have a chance to prove themselves. Therefore, the movement of migration decreases the regional disparities. How to cite Poverty in Canada or USA, Papers

Results and conclusion for aspirin synthesis free essay sample

After recrystallisation differences between the crude and purified aspirin were noted. The impure (crude) aspirin was powered and fluffy with small clumps and was slightly yellow in colour whereas the pure aspirin has a less fluffy crystalline powder and was whiter. This showed distinct differences in the two substances but similarities were also apparent showing aspirin, in some level, was created. Before recrystallisation the crude aspirin could of included impurities such as: Acetic acid (a product of the reaction process). Recrystallisation helps to eliminate impurities; the precipitation process eradicates soluble impurities as aspirin has a higher precipitation temperature so converts to a solid while other impure components are left as soluble in the solution. The yield is calculated to look at how well the reaction has been completed. This reaction is simplified to: C7H6O3 + C4H6O3 C9H8O4 + C2H4O2 To work out the yield; 0. We will write a custom essay sample on Results and conclusion for aspirin synthesis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 917g of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid (0. 917/138) * 180 138 (the molar mass of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid) 180 (the molar mass of aspirin) Theoretical yield: 1. 196g 3 d. p. Percentage yield is worked out by Actual yield of synthesised aspirin: 0. 347g 0. 347/1. 196 * 100= 29 Percentage yield: 29% Melting Points CompoundBegan Melting ( °C)Totally Melted ( °C)Range ( °C) Pure Aspirin1361-2 Crude Aspirin1251305 Product from Willow Bark1201255 The documented melting point for pure aspirin is 136 °C. An impure compound will exhibit a lower melting point than this, which is what was observed in both the willow bark product and the crude aspirin. Pure aspirin has a narrow temperature range during which it changes from a solid to a liquid; this range is less than 2 °C. The sharpness of the melting point is useful to measure purity using pure aspirin as a comparison. As both types of aspirin melted over a temperature range of 5 °C it’s indicative that both substances have many impurities. The range of melting points for the crude aspirin and product of willow bark in comparison to the pure aspirin is obvious and can show the level and amount of impurity in both compounds. Chromatography Different constituents of each mixture travel at different speeds along the paper causing the components to separate. Above is a picture of the chromatography, comparing phenol (P), 2-hydroxybenzoic acid (2), pure aspirin (A), crude aspirin (I) and product from willow bark (W). Only two of the spots have been circled here, more were seen after this picture was taken but an image of the final separation was not photographed only observations were made (see table). CompoundRf value (numbered for multiple spots per compound) Phenol control4/6 = 0. 6 2-hydroxybenzoic acid4. 4/6 = 0. 73’ Pure aspirin5. 7-6 = 0. 95 Crude aspirin 0.5/6 = 0. 083’ Product from willow bark1. 1. 2/6= 0. 20 2. 2. 6/6 = 0. 43’ 3. 1-6 = 0. 16’ Rf = Retardation factor. The documented Rf for pure aspirin is 0. 56; however this experiment shows pure aspirin to be 0. 95, therefore for the purpose of comparison the documented value shall be used. This could be due to contamination, incorrect processes in the procedure, the amount of solution used or the temperature of the solution, although some of these factors are difficult to keep constant in the environment. The Phenol compound was used as a comparison. The result shows phenol is lighter than pure aspirin as it doesn’t contain as many atoms in its structure, with a molecular mass of 94. 11 g/mol. See Fig 1. 2-hydroxybenzoic acid, which is the main metabolite of aspirin, shows it is also molecularly lighter (in that it is moved further up the paper when soluble) than crude aspirin or pure aspirin. We would expect to see this because crude aspirin consists of the mass of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid and other compounds giving a total mass of 138. 12 (g mol-1). The pure aspirin shows only one spot on the paper, this is because it consists of only one compound, that being 2-acetoxybenzoic acid (aspirin). Pure aspirin has a molecular mass of 180. 157 (g/mol). The synthesised crude aspirin also shows only one spot but this is very far away from the pure aspirin Rf, although it could consist of multiple components close in mass so they merge into one spot. This clearly qualitatively shows the level of impurity as it is much heavier showing it contains other compounds weighing it down, which it should not have if synthesised meticulously. The willow bark product produced 3 spots on the paper which indicates it has multiple constituents all heavier than pure aspirin therefore is impure. This was expected because of the source, although the TLC (thin layer chromatography) paper could have been accidently splashed with an organic compound during the experimentation process and thus distorting the results by showing extra spots, this is unlikely as it’s expected that the willow bark product will be heavily impure. The paper also shows an elongated spot which is due to the solution being too concentrated. Fig 1. Aspirin StructurePhenol Structure 2- Hydroxybenzoic Willow Bark Synthesis Acid structure Chemical tests 1. Reaction with sodium carbonate CompoundObservations Phenol 2-hydoxybenzoic acidBubbled, clumped and floated to the surface of solution Crude aspirin Pure aspirin- Product from willow bark Phenol served as a comparison for the sodium carbonate to show it didn’t produce a reaction when it shouldn’t have. An above observation was made when sodium carbonate reacted with 2-hydroxybenzoic acid which was expected due to CO2 being released when an acid and a carbonate combine, below shows the reaction that took place. C7H6O3 + Na2CO3 NaC7H5O3 + H2O + CO2 No reactions were observed for the crude or pure aspirin which revealed the 2-hydroxybenzoic acid had formed a new product during synthesis which has no reaction with sodium carbonate. This was the outcome required and was achieved based on this test. The product derived from willow bark also showed no reaction as it had no component within it that reacted with sodium carbonate, no acid group within this natural product. 2. Reaction with Fe3+ CompoundColour with Fe3+ PhenolIntensely Purple 2-hydroxybenzoic acidPurple and frothy Crude AspirinPale purple, almost translucent Pure AspirinLight brown Product from Willow BarkBlack A solution presenting purple when mixed with an iron group shows the presence of a Phenol group. All mixtures, apart from the pure aspirin, exhibited this although all varied in colour intensity. Aspirin doesn’t have a Phenol group as can be seen from the lack of purple in the solution so this can be used as a control along with the phenol solution itself. From this test it can be seen, to what degree each compound has a phenol impurity. The solution containing the crude aspirin only changed to a slight translucent purple indicating a low level of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid (as can be seen this compound reacts strongly to the addition of Fe) and so the crude aspirin has impurities but only to a certain degree. The pure aspirin shows how a  compound with less impurities shouldn’t contain phenol and how this reacts in the solution and what colour should appear, colours away from this contain impurities. The willow bark product displayed an intense black colour, possibly so purple it looked black, so far away from the pure aspirin colour that contaminations are certain. Evaluation All procedures and processes of each stage of synthesis had variables that could result in an impure product. Although the recrystallisation stage, to remove impurities, was performed by an experienced laboratory staff member errors could still have occurred and these must be considered. Before the crude aspirin was recrystallised it may have contained various impurities that were not all eradicated by the precipitation process, these could include: contaminations in the air and C2H4O2 (a product of the original reaction), along with contaminations in the distilled water used, although this is better than using tap water. A high or even moderate yield was not achieved. This could be due to many factors; the experience of the chemists producing the aspirin having a poor laboratory technique, thus procedures were not carried out effectively and without error. Percentages of the substances could have been lost or misplaced during stages of the procedure. Other variables that could lead to the yield being less than 100% are: transfer of the product between containers, an incomplete reaction could have occurred, and is likely to have, where each compound does not fully react when it should due to factors beyond control, this will lower the products final mass. Recrystallisation also loses product and therefore yield as some product may still be left in the solution or on the filter paper. The aspirin may not have dried properly; making the mass higher therefore the purity would be lower. This factor could have distorted all results consequently when comparing, all would have the same distortion. The melting points may have inaccuracies as the temperature at which the willow bark melted was debated by the group. Lack of concentration and difficulty in determining when it had melted may have led to the product melting fully before it was observed and this would lead to a distortion of the results. It would be expected that the willow bark would melt at a higher temperature that the crude aspirin as it is known to have more impurities. Conclusion The overall objectives were to synthesise aspirin from 2-hydroxybenzoic acid and willow bark, and qualitatively determine the purity of each product, this was achieved as aspirin was produced from both the willow bark and the substances. The results from all tests do display that there were impurities, although they did not all show a consistent level of impurity. There was a noted difference, but not greatly so, in appearance between the crude and pure aspirin when tested with the Fe3+ solution. In contrast the TLC test exhibited a drastic comparable difference between the crude and pure aspirin. Possibly this was because the TLC did not use a subjective scale like the other tests, the quantitative measurability of the results allowed the outcome to be easily compared to the other products and against the pure aspirin. All tests showed a qualitative visual level of impurity in the results. Although this level varied and cannot be compared due to the difference in format of the results for each test, it can be seen, in general, that the crude aspirin contained more impurities than the pure aspirin and the willow bark product was the most impure of them all. This was expected. Although a ‘pure’ aspirin was synthesised from the crude, this is still an aspirin substance synthesised in a college laboratory by college students who are not skilled in laboratory practice and could have contaminated the experiment at various stages and not been astute enough to record and monitor reactions well. This could lead to the ‘pure’ aspirin only being a certain level of pure itself therefore any comparisons made against it are relative to that aspirin not the aspirin on the market/in stores. This can be seen in the chromatography test where documented aspirin has a retardation factor of 0. 56 but the synthesised pure aspirin is much lighter meaning it may not contain all the compounds found in correctly synthesised aspirin. To conclude if all variables and experimenter error was controlled a purer product would have been made and a higher yield would have been produced. Not all variables can be accounted for and therefore a 100% yield can never be achieved, even in a manufacturer setting.